英語課堂教學需要很多語言交流活動,即課堂言語互動。課堂教學的言語互動主要體現在師生言語互動上,而這種言語互動又往往通過問與答的形式來完成。《英語作為外語的課堂問答話語語用研究》在運用話語分析的相關理論對課堂問答話語進行靜態研究的同時,重點運用語用學的主要理論,諸如言語行為、語用前提、合作原則、禮貌原則等,對英語作為外語的課堂問答話語進行了動態研究。
語用學研究的是特定語境中的特定話語。在外語課堂教學這一具體語境中,教師的話語角色與他們的社會角色既相一致又相矛盾,這種矛盾統一在問答話語中得到充分的體現。一方面教師通過提問、反饋控制課堂話語和話輪;另一方面教師采用很多禮貌言語策略,鼓勵學生參與課堂互動。在對課堂問答話語的理解與闡述上,英語作為外語的教學語境起著至關重要的作用。言語行為理論為課堂問答話語實施不同功能供了理論依據。提問可以使言成功有所為。即通過說出(言內行為)“提問”(次要言外行為)這一言語,間接發出指令(主要言外行為),使聽話人按照指令行事(提問的言后行為);“回答 (言內行為),如解釋、造句、朗讀等(言外行為),同樣是按照提問的間接指令在以言行事,滿足提問不同的語用前提,達到提問以言致效的結果。在課堂回答話語中,師生均有違背合作原則的言語。教師違反數量準則,提供比問題所要求更詳盡的話語是在利用回答增加言語輸入;學生對數量準則、質量準則、關聯準則或方式準則的違反,源于語言知識或技能的欠缺。在禮貌原則方面,師生也有許多與社會角色相脫離、與禮貌原則相悖的言語現象。這種對禮貌原則的違反,在課堂教學語境下有助于完成教學任務。
在討論了課堂提問的八種形式、五種功能和回答的三種類型后,我們認為受課堂語境制約。學生作出的非期待回答、零回答與期待回答一樣都對教學具有反饋意義。課堂問答話語除了在交流信息、維持人際關系上互相配合外,還在實施啟發、檢查、操練等教育功能和求知、解等探索功能方面相互作用。本研究根據真實、自然的課堂語料,總結了六種課堂問一答話語結構,并分別對起始、回應、反饋話目進行了考,認為IRF是課堂問一答話語的基本結構,其余四種(除IR結構外)結構是IRF結構的擴展結構。
本研究綜合運用了話語分析和語用學兩門學科的相關理論,采用定性分析的方法,以兩種課型課堂教學語料為素材,對課堂問答話語進行了從靜態到動態的實證研究,揭示了EFL教學中問與答言語互動的真實情況。《英語作為外語的課堂問答話語語用研究》從教師的權威性與學生的自主性、提高學生話語輸出的質量與數量、反饋話目對學生學習動機和言語準確性的作用,以及培養學生語用能力四個方面討論了問答話語互動對EFL教學的指導作用。這些結合英語教學實際的建議性意見將會對我國的英語教學具有很大的指導意義。
30多年前年兩位英國語言學家sinclair和COUl廿lard對課堂上的言語活動進行了分析,后來他們把自己的研究結果寫成了一部著作并于1975年由牛津大學出版社出版,那是話語分析這個研究領域中早期一部頗有影響的作品——Towards an Analysis of Discourse。兩位作者以收集到的課堂言語活動語料為基礎,對課堂話語的構成作出了描述,并提出了一個多層的構成模式。不過他們當年對課堂話語所做的研究大體上是描述性的,是靜態的。此后隨著語用學這一新生領域的產生和壯大,語言研究進入了一個言必稱語用的時代。自然,話語分析家也開始把語用融入自己的研究中去了。
哈爾濱工業大學傅利教授撰寫的《英語作為外語的課堂問答話語語用研究》這部專著便是這個研究領域的成果之一。它的標題明白無誤地告訴我們它研究的對象是什么,它研究的視角是什么。和30多年前兩位英國學者的研究相比較,傅利教授的研究和他們的研究有相同之處,它們兩者都以課堂話語為對象,兩個研究都是描述性的;但是它們之間又有很大的不同,那就是前者是靜態的,后者是動態的。后者的動態性是由它的研究視角決定的,因為它是對課堂問答話語所做的語用研究,而這一研究視角在30多年前恐怕還沒有完全進入兩位英國學者的視野。用語用這個視角去觀察一個看似熟知的現象,我們可以看到許多我們原先所看不到的東西。這正是這部專著的意義和價值所在。作者通過實錄課堂教學情景,對課堂里師生之間問答這一特定的話語活動做了描述,但作者并沒有就此止步,她接著應用語用學的一系列理論對這個話語活動進行了動態的分析。除了對教師的問題和學生的回答的表面形式、類型和構成作了描述之外,她還對問題的功能、回答的內涵等語用側面作了分析。
序
Acknowledgements
Abstract
內容提要
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Objectives of the Study
1.2 Rationale for the Study
1.3 Methodology and Data for the Study
1.3.1 Methodology
1.3.2 Data collection
1.3.3 Data description
1.3.4 Limitations in data collection
1.4 Outline of the Book
Chapter 2 Review of Discourse Analysis
2.1 Discourse Analysis
2.1.1 Early attempts
2.1.2 Sociological approach
2.1.3 Sociolinguistic approach
2.2 Critical Discourse Analysis
2.2.1 Discourse as power/knowledge
2.2.2 Discourse as social practice
2.2.3 Discourse as(re)production of dominance
2.2.4 Critique
2.3 Classroom Discourse Analysis
213.1Hierarchical rank model
2.3.2 Instructional phase
2.3.3 Language classroom research
2.3.4 Critical analysis of classroom discourse
2.3.5 Classroom question and answer research
Summary
Chapter 3 Pragmatic Theories for the Study
3.1Context
3.1.1 What is context?
3.1.2 The context-bound study
3.1.3 The context-bound discourse
3.2 Speech Act Theory
3.2.1 Speech acts
3.2 2 Illocutionary acts
3.2.3 Questions and answers as illocutionary acts
3.2.4 Questions as indirect directives
3.2.5 Questions and answers as indirect speech acts
3.3 Interpersonal Rhetoric
3.3.1 Cooperative principle(CP)
3.3.2 Politeness principle(PP)
3.3.3 Questions as face-threatening acts?
3.3.4 Answers and silence as face-losing acts?
Sumary
Chapter 4 Questions in the EFL Classroom
4.1 Forms of Questions
4.1.1 General questions
4.1.2 Special questions
4.1.3 Alternative questions
4.1.4 Disjunctive questions
4.1.5 Rhetorical questions69
4.1.6 Declarative and imperative questions‘70
4.1.7 Shortened forms of questions72
4.2 Functions of Questions74
4.2.1 Informative function
4.2.2 Interpersonal function
4.2.3 Directive function
4.2.4 Instructive function
4.2.5 Exploratory function
4.3 Features of Teacher’s Questions
4.3.1 Reiteration of questions
4.3.2 Simplification of questions
4.3.3 Clustering of questions
4.3.4 Self-answering of questions
Summary
Chapter 5 Answers in the EFL Classroom
5.1 Criteria for the Classification of Answers
5.1.1 Adjacency pair
5.1.2 Pragmatic presupposition
5.1.3 Cooperative principle
5.2 Preferred Second Pair Part
5.2.1 Adequate answers
5.2.2 Excessive answers
5.3 Dispreferred Second Pair Part
5.3.1 Deficient answers
5.3.2 Incorrect answers
5.3.3 Indirect answers
5.4 Zero Second Pajr Part
5.4.1 Silence and void of action
5.4.2 Examination of silence
Summary
Chapter 6 Question——Answer Structures in the EFL Classroom118
6.1 Instructional Interaction
6.1.1 Institutional talk and ordinary talk
6.1.2 Institutional interaction and classroom interaction120
6.1.3 Teacher’S domination of tum·taking·122
6.2 Question·Answer Structures123
6.2.1 Initiation-Response124
6.2.2 Initiation-Response-Feedback125
6.2.3 Initiation-Responselflnitiation2一Feedback/Response2
6.2.4 Initiation-Response-Feedbackfl2一(Ra·F2f13)
6.2.5 Initiation-Response(一h-R2)一Feedback
6.2.6 Initiation-Response-Feedback一(R2Fn)
6.3 Examination of Question-Answer Structures
6.3.1 The IRF structure133
6.3.2 Examination of the initiation
6.3.3 Examination of the response
6.3.4 Examination of the feedback
6.3.5 Extension of the IRF structure
6.4 Repairs in the Question-Answer Discourse
6.4.1 Intra-sentence repairs
6.4.2 Intra-tum repairs
6.4.3 Inter-rum self-initiated other-repairs
6.4.4 Inter-tum other-initiated other-repairs
6.4.5 Tri-tum repairs
6.4.6 Examination of the repairs
Summary
Chapter 7 Conclusion
7.1 Limitations in the Study
7.2 Summary of the Study
7.3 Implications for EFL Teaching
7.3.1 The role relationship between teacher and student
7.3.2 The increase of student talk
7.3.3 The functions of feedback
7.3.4 The development of students’pragmatic competence
7.4 Suggestions for Future Research
Bibliography
Appendices
Appendix 1 Transcription Conventions
Appendix 2 Transcripts of Chapter 5
Appendix 3 Transcripts of Chapter 6
1.3.4 Limitations in data collection There are some limitations in the data collection.Firstly:the present study was based on the tape-recording of two kinds of classes:with no interview and questionnaire being conducted.Secondly,the data were collected through tape-recording of the class,ignoring bodylanguage,such as facial expressions:gestures:etc.,of the subjects.Thirdly:a small amount of the recording was unintelligible and had tobe left alone.These limitations might to some extent affect the data forthe present classroom discourse analysis.
1.4 Outline of the Book This book is composed of seven chapters.Chapter One provides ageneral introduction to the current research:in which the objectives:the rationale:the methodology and data for the research are stated.Chapter Two presents a brief review of the literature regardingprevious studies of discourse analysis.This chapter introduces theachievements made in discourse analysis:critical discourse analysisand classroom discourse analysis.Chapter Three lays the pragmaticbasis for the research.The contributions of some key theories ofpragmatics:such as speech act theory:indirect speech act theory:presupposition:cooperative principle and politeness principle,areinvestigated and their application in classroom question-answerdiscourse is discussed with the collected data.Chapter Four dealswith the questions in the classroom,introducing the forms ofquestions:relating the features of teacher’S question and discussing itsfunctions:particularly its functions in teaching and learning.ChapterFive addresses the types of answers in relation to the questions.Chapter Six is devoted to the interplay of the question-answerdiscourse on the teacher-student interaction in the EFL classroom.After the demonstration of question-answer structures